参考教材:社会心理学(原书第11版)
目录
期末复习
重点内容
- 什么是社会心理学?
社会心理学是研究人们如何看待彼此,如何互相影响、互相联系的科学。 - 大多数的心理学研究都是“相关研究”(探寻自然联系)和“实验研究”(探寻因果关系)
- 焦点效应(spotlight effect):人类往往会把自己看做一切的中心,并且直觉地高估别人对我们的注意度。
- 透明度错觉(illusion of transparency):我们往往认为如果我们意识到自己的心情(焦虑、愤怒、开心等),我们的面容就会很清楚地表现出这种心情并且使别人注意到。事实上,我们可能比自己意识到的还要模糊不清。我们倾向于认为我们的情绪总是表现得比实际情况更明显。
- 自我参照效应(self-reference effect):当信息与我们的自我概念有关时,我们会对它进行快速的加工和很好的回忆。
- 自我概念:
- 自我图式:你的自我概念构成要素以及定义你的自我的那些特殊信念就是你的自我图式。图式是我们组织自己所处世界的心理模板。我们的自我图式也就是对自己的认识.比如身强力壮的、超重的、聪明的等等,强烈地影响着我们对社会信息的加丁心。这会影响我们如何感知、回忆和评价他人和自己。
- 可能自我:我们梦想中的样子,以及我们害怕成为的样子,这种可能自我会激发出一种我们渴望的生活愿景,对我们能够产生巨大的激励作用,或促使我们努力避免成为自己害怕的样子。
- 什么决定了自我概念:
- 基因
- 我们扮演的角色
- 我们形成的社会同一性
- 我们和别人的比较
- 我们的成功与失败
- 其他人如何评价我们
- 周围的文化
- 镜像自我:我们以别人怎么看我们作为镜子来看自己。
- 自我膨胀:当所处文化习惯于夸赞别人的时候,人们会膨胀自己的自我意象,
- 自我批评:当所处文化习惯于嘲讽他人或是表现失望时,人们会习惯于进入低自尊和羞愧状态,更习惯于自我批评。
- 双重态度系统:我们关于人或事的自动的内隐态度通常与受意识控制的外显态度不同
- 自我认识出错:
- 解释我们的行为:我们认为周一心情会不好,雨天会忧郁,但事实上这些情况下我们的心情和平时并没有太大的区别
- 预测我们的行为:情侣通常预测他们的关系天长地久。
- 规划谬论:我们习惯于低估我们完成一项任务的时间,因为人们会错误记忆之前完成任务所需的实际时间。在花钱上的预测相同。
- 预测我们的感受:人们很难预测自己未来情绪的强度和持续时间。
- 影响偏差:高估情绪事件的持久性影响。
- 免疫忽视现象:人们往往忽视了自己心理免疫系统的速度和力量,包括合理化策略、看淡、原谅和限制情绪创伤。
- 自尊是对自我价值的整体认识,影响我们如何评价自己的特点和能力,包括自我图式和可能自我的总和。
- 自尊与自恋:大多数高自尊的人都重视个人的成功和与他人的关系;自恋者虽然通常有高自尊,但缺失关心他人
- 自我同情:不与他人比较而是善待自己,不过多追求自我形象,而是专注在开发自己和发展人际关系
- 自我效能:我们感到有能力完成某项任务
- 控制点:你认为人生是自己决定还是外部力量决定
- 习得性无助:人在自己无法控制的不利情境中会变得被动
- 自我服务偏差:个体倾向于有利于自身的方式来进行自我知觉。
- 自我服务归因:把好的结果归因于自己,而把坏的结果归因于其他。
- 偏见盲点:我们总是认为自己站在客观的角度, 而所有其他人都带有偏见。
- 盲目乐观:人们对未来的预期总是偏向乐观
- 虚假普遍性效应:过分高估或低估他人会像我们一样思考和行事的程度。在【观点】方面,我们过高地估计别人对我们观点的赞成度以支持自己的立场。
- 虚假独特性效应:在【能力】方面,我们把自己的才智和品德看成超平寻常的,以完善自己的自我形象。
- 内省幻觉:内省的结果通常都有偏差,并不准确
- 自我服务偏差同时还会引发群体服务偏差,我们通常认为自己所在的群体优于其他群体。
- 自我表露:我们要向外在观众(别人)和内在观众(自己)展现一种受赞许的形象。
- 自我监控:一些人不断监控自己的行为,注意他人的反应,调整自己的行为以获得社会赞许
- 虚伪的谦虚:为了掩盖个人认为自己真的优于众人的想法
- 自我妨碍:自我妨碍有利于我们把失败归于一些暂时的或外在因素而非自己的天赋或能力的匮乏,而可以保护我们的自尊和公众形象。
- 信念固着:人们一旦为错误的信息建立了理论基础,那么就很难再让他们否定这条错误信息。
- 验证性偏差:与寻找证据证伪自己的信念相比,我们更愿意证实它们。人们往往会寻找那些支持自己信念的信息。
- 记忆重构——记忆是在我们进行回忆时重构的,它受到所持态度的严重影响,并通过当前情感进行检索;(改变记忆以使其符合我们现在的价值观)
- 过度自信的矫正:
- 即时反馈
- 分解一项任务
- 去设想自己的判断可能出错的原因
- 启发式判断:
- 代表性启发式判断,对某一个事物进行评价时,在直觉的引导下,将其与某一类别的心理表征进行比较
- 易得性启发式判断,我们越容易从脑中提取的信息,就越容易认为是真的。
- 反事实思维:对可能发生的事的心理模拟。银牌获得者会模拟自己得金牌,铜牌获得者会模拟自己没得奖牌,所以一般而言铜牌获得者比银牌获得者更开心。“如果…就好了”反事实思维是构成幸运感的基础。事件本身越重要,反事实思维强度就越大。
- 基本归因错误:我们解释某种行为时,会低估环境造成的影响而高估个人的特质和态度造成的影响。
- 错觉思维:
- 错觉相关:将随机事件知觉为对自己信念的支持
- 控制错觉——让人觉得自己可以控制“随机事件的能力”,比如通过计算买彩票;
- 趋均数回归——当事情达到极端时,无论做什么,都会向平均水平靠拢,而我们会归因于我们所做的事情。
- 社会期望的影响
- 自我实现预言:信念能够导向自我实现
- 期望理论:我们对一个人的期望会影响这个人真正的表现。
- 行为确证:一旦形成错误的社会信念,就可能引发他人做出某些行为反应以支持这种信念。
- 态度的组成:abc:情感(affect)行为倾向(behavior tendency)认知(cognition)
- 道德伪善:显得很有道德水平,但事实上不愿付出任何代价
- 态度如何影响行为:态度和行为受很多其他因素影响,所以态度往往无法直接决定行为。人们的态度有外显和内隐两种,同时运用两种态度来预测行为可以让预测更准确。当我们思考自己的态度的时候,态度才会影响我们的行为。
- 行为如何影响态度: 我们坚持我们相信的,同时我们坚持做的东西也会被我们逐步相信。我们会进行自我说服,从而进入社会角色。
- 登门槛效应:想让一个人帮你大忙,可以先让他帮你一个小忙。
- 行为影响态度的原因分析:
- 自我表露理论(印象管理):我们会表露出一些态度使自己看起来表里如一。
- 认知失调理论(自我辩解):为了减少自己内心的不适,我们说服自己某些行为是合理的(我们想要保持自己认知间的一致性)。使失调最小化的方法:选择性接触(我们会选择接受支持自己观点的信息)。理由不足时会引起更大的失调感,同时也会使态度进行更大的转变。决策后我们经常会高度评价自己的选择,贬低未做的选择,以此来减少失调。
- 决策后的不协调:做出重要决策后,我们通常会过高地评价自己的决策而贬低自己放弃的选择。
- 自我知觉理论(自我观察):当我们的感觉或者信念不确定的时候,我们也会像其他人一样观察自己。当我们无法将自己的行为归结为外部约束的时候,我们就将原因归结为自己。
- 过度合理化效应:结合自我知觉理论,当我们把行为归结为外部环境时(如奖励),我们的行为会缺少自主性。给人们报酬会让他们觉得自己的行为只是为了得到报酬,这样会削弱他们的自我知觉——因为兴趣而去做。
- 具身认知现象:特定的举止会引发特定的情感,比如以一个颓废的姿势坐一整天,并且对所有事都以一种阴沉的声音回应,那忧郁就会一直持续。可以大步流星走一阵子,同时甩动胳膊直视前方来让自己感觉好些。
知晓内容
- 进化心理学的反思:是从结果开始构建的一种倒推的机能主义,并且没有考虑文化因素。如果想象女性更加强壮且具有攻击性,人们会解释,这样更有助于保护她们的孩子。
- 基因会影响百分之五十的个体差异,共享环境影响百分之0-10的差距,同伴影响40%-50%
- 从众:
- 表现形式有两种:顺从是迫于外部压力而与群体趋同但内心并不赞同;服从是顺从的一种,是指对直接命令的顺从。接纳是指内心认可社会压力并在行动上保持一致。
- 根据他人做出的行动或者信念的改变。判断是否从众的关键点在于,脱离群体时,你的信念是否还会保持不变。
- 心境联结:处在快乐的环境中会让我们更有愉悦感,在同一工作群体中,人们的心境通常非常相似。
- 社会传染效应(变色龙效应):在环境中模仿大多数人的行为,模仿自杀。
- 群体癔症:人群的暗示以集体妄想的形式出现,自发地散播错误信念。
- 预测从众的因素:
- 群体规模:多个小群体的一致意见会使某个观点更可信。3至5个人比只有1个或2个人能引发更多的从众行为。当人数增加到5 个人以上时,从众行为会逐渐减少
- 一致性:如果你能找到某个人和你立场一致的话,那么你为某件事站出来就容易得多。
- 凝聚力:我们认为群体之外的人一—另一个大学里的人或不同的宗教信仰者——提出的少数派观点,对我们的影响要小于我们自己群体内的少数派观点对我们的影响,如异性恋对同性恋的平权呼吁会在异性恋群体中有更大的影响力。一个群体的凝聚力(cohesive) 越强,对成员的影响力就越大。
- 地位:米尔格拉姆(1974) 报告说,在他的服从实验中,地位低的人比地位高的人更愿意服从研究者的命令
- 公开反应:人们必须面对他人做反应时要比私下里回答问题会表现出更多的从众行为。
- 事前承诺:个体一旦对自己的立场作了承诺, 就很少屈服千社会压力。现实生活中的仲裁者和裁判员很少推翻自己最初的决定。
- 影响个体从众的原因
- 规范影响:渴望别人喜欢,例:在德国演讲厅里敲桌喝彩的不仅仅是我一个人
- 信息影响:渴望正确行事,例:他人行为也向我展示了正确表达赞赏的方法
- 打破从众
- 逆反(reactance) 心理理论一人们确实采取行动来保护他们的自由感。假定有人在街上拦住你,要你在一份请愿书上签字,而这件事你只是在心理有点儿赞成。当你正在考虑时,这个人告诉你,有些人认为“应该绝对禁止散发或签署这份请愿书。"逆反理论预测,这类明显的限制自由的企图事实上会增加你签署的概率。
- 坚持自己的独特性。
- 自发性自我概念:只有当个体与众不同时,也只有以这样一种方式,个体才会意识到自我。”因此,“如果在一群白人女性中我是一个黑人妇女的话,那么,我往往会认为自己是一个黑人;而如果我转到了黑人男性群体中,那么我的黑肌肤就没有那么突出了,我更会意识到自己是一位女性”
- 说服的途径:
- 说服的中心途径:关注论据,如果论据强有力且令人信服那么人们就更可能被说服。当人们有能力全面系统地对某个问题进行思考的时候用这种方法
- 说服的外周途径:关注那些令人不假思索就接受的外部线索,而不考虑论据是否令人信服,当人们转移了注意力或者没有足够的动机去思考的时候,熟悉易懂的表达比新异的表达更具有说服力。
- 说服者的可信度:
- 可知觉的专家性:
- 从传达听众赞同的观点开始,这样能使你看上去很聪明
- 以该领域的专家的身份介绍给大家
- 自信的表达
- 可知觉的信赖性:
- 我们会认为那些站在自身利益对立面的说话者是真诚的。
- 当一个人说话语速较快的时候,我们认为可信度较高。
- 吸引力和偏好:据有更大外表吸引力,与我们有更多相似的人,对我们影响力更大,对那些我们偏好的东西,我们更有可能做出回应
- 可知觉的专家性:
- 说服的信息内容:
- 理智vs情感:如果一个人初始的态度来源于情感,那么他更容易被情感性的论点说服;如果其初始态度主要来源于理智,那么理性的论点则更加有力。思辨性强的人会有更多的认知需求,高学历的人及行业专家、积极参与和思考的人更容易接受理性观点。
- 能够与引发人好心情的情景结合在一起能让正面信息更具有说服力。能够引发人恐惧的情景能让负面信息更具有说服力,如戒烟广告。
- 差异:可信度和差异之间的交互作用: 差异大小的影响作用取决于信息传达者是否具有可信度。如果存在一个可信、不容忽视的信息来源,那么一个与信息接收者差异很大的立场会引发最大程度的观点改变。
- 单方面说服vs双方面说服(是否要表达自己对立面的观点来证明自己)
承认相反的观点可能会使听众感到疑惑并且会削弱自己的观点。但是,承认相反的观点也可能使听众觉得我们毫无偏见,从而消除他们的戒心。,如果人们对(或者将对)相反的观点有所了解的话,双面论证会更具有说服力,并且说服效果更加持久。单方面论证对赞同方更具有说服力,双方面论证对持反对意见的人更有效。 - 首因vs近因:
- 首因效应(primacy effect) :最先出现的信息最具说服力。第一印象很重要
- 近因效应:人们对更靠近自己现在的观点记忆更深刻 如果两种信息接连出现,并且听众经过一段时间后再做反应,那么首先出现的信息最有利(首因效应)。如果两种信息在时间上是分离的,而要求听众在听完第二种信息后立即判断的话,那第二种信最有利(近因效应)。
- 说服渠道:
- 主动参与还是被动接受:一般来说主动参与的信息更令人记忆深刻,但是被动信息如果经过不停重复以及通过押韵让其更流畅顺口,也能增加可信度(任何增加流利度的因素,都能增加可信度,但效用比会逐渐降低)。对于我们很熟悉或者我们觉得很重要的观点,被动说服的影响力变小。
- 个人对我们的信息具有强大的影响,面对面接触能让人思想产生更大的改变
- 媒体-意见领袖-群众,是媒体沟通的两步流程
- 容易理解的信息以影像形式呈现时最具有说服力。而难于理解的信息则以书面形式呈现时效果最佳
- 说服对象:信息的接收方
- 20岁左右的世界观形成期对个人未来影响深远
- 预先知道有人试图说服你,很容易激起你的反驳之心;
- 如果人们受到干扰而无暇反驳时,言语的说服力会增强;
- 激发思考(中心路径)可使有说服力的信息更具说服力,且使无说服力的信息更令人怀疑
- 社会懈怠:在集体任务中小组成员的努力程度反而较小
- 当任务具有挑战性、吸引力、引人入胜的特点时,群体成员的懈怠程度就会减弱
- 如果小组成员彼此都是朋友而非陌生人或成员都很认同自己的群体,那么懈怠就会有所减少
导论
- 社会心理学三个部分:
- 看待他人
- 影响他人
- 联系他人
- Warmth、competence是判断人的两个维度
- 社会心理学是一门研究人们如何看待他人,如何互相影响,以及如何与他人互相关联的科学
- 社会心理学中的重要观点
社会中的自我
- 我们对自我的认识可以帮助我们组织思想和行为。当我们加工有关自己的信息时,我们可以很好地回忆它(自我参照效应)。
自我概念包括两个元素:- 指导我们对与自我有关的信息进行特殊加工的自我图式
- 我们梦想或害怕成为的可能自我。
- 文化也会塑造自我。某些人,特别是在崇尚个人主义的西方文化中,假定存在一个独立的自我。还有一些人,主要存在于亚洲和第三世界文化中,假定存在一个相互依赖的自我
- 焦点效应(spotlight effect ) 意味着,人类往往会把自己看做一切的中心,并且直觉地高估别人对我们的关注程度。我们很在意自己给别人留下了什么印象,我们倾向于认为别人给予我们的关注比实际要多。
- 透明度错觉( illusion of transparency)。如果我们意识到自己很快乐、我们的脸上就会清楚地表现出这种快乐,别人会注意到。事实上,我们的表现可能比自己意识到的还要模糊不清。我们倾向于认为我们的情绪总是表现得比实际情况更明显
- 你的自我概念构成要素以及定义你的自我的那些特殊信念就是你的自我图式。图式是我们组织自己所处世界的心理模板。我们的自我图式也就是对自己的认识.比如身强力壮的、超重的、聪明的等等,强烈地影响着我们对社会信息的加工。这会影响我们如何感知、回忆和评价他人和自己。
- 可能自我包括我们梦想中自己的样子,比如富有、苗条、充满激情地爱与被爱的自我。同样也包括我们害怕成为的样子、比如失业的、没有人爱的、学业上失败的自我。这种可能自我会激发出一种我们渴望的生活愿景,对我们能够产生巨大的激励作用,或促使我们努力避免成为自己害怕的样子。
- 双生子研究发现,基因对人格和自我概念有重要的影响,但是社会经验也扮演了很重要的角色。这些影响包括:
- 我们扮演的角色
- 我们形成的社会同一性
- 我们和别入的比较
- 我们的成功与失败
- 其他人如何评价我们
与我们的自我概念有关的并不是别人实际上如何评价我们,而是我们想象中他们如何评价我们。我们通常感到赞扬别人比批评别人更自在,更倾向于恭维而不是嘲讽他人。因此, 我们可能高估了别人对我们的评价,进而膨胀了我们的自我意象 - 周围的文化
- 在滑铁卢大学的研究发现,学生对其室友恋爱持续时间的预测比对自己恋爱持续时间的预测更准确。住院医师们一般不太擅长预测自己在外科手术测试中的表现,但是同组的同事对彼此表现的预测却会出奇的精确
- 在行为预测中最常见的一个错误是低估我们完成一项任务的时间[ 称为规划谬误( pl anajng fa ll acy ) ]。但是朋友和老师们却能够预测出他们何时才能完成论文。人们之所以会低估完成某件事情的时间, 是因为他们错误地记忆了之前完成任务实际所用的时间
- “情感预测"的研究显示,人们很邓预测自己未来情绪的强度和持续时间
- 多个研究显示我们易受影响偏差( impact bias ) 的影响——高估情绪事件的持久性影响。影响偏差是很重要的,因为人们的“情感预报”一他们对自己未来情感的预测—一会影响他们的决定。如果人们高估了快乐的强度和持续时间. 那么他们可能去买一辆新车
- 人们往往忽视了自己心理免疫系统的速度和力量,包括合理化策略、看淡、原谅和限制情绪创伤。相比轻微的愤怒(不能激活我们的防御机制), 重大的消极事件(可以激活我们的心理防御机制)所引发的痛苦持续的时间反而更短。
- 我们有双重态度系统( dua lattitude sys tem )。我们关于人或事的自动的内隐态度通常与受意识控制的外显态度不同
- 自尊动机影响我们的认知过程:面对失败,高自尊的人会认为他人也和自己一样失败,并夸大自己相对千他人的优越性,以维持自己的自我价值。
- 自尊是对自我价值的整体认识,影响我们如何评价自己的特点和能力。
- 当兄弟之间的能力相差甚远时,例如其中一人是运动健将,而另一人则能力平平,他们的关系往往不太好.自尊水平也会影响个体的反应。在自尊受到威胁时,高自尊的人通常会做出补偿反应,如责怪别人或下次更加努力. 这些反应有助于他们保护积极的自我感觉; 而低自尊的人则更容易自责或放弃努力,进而被击垮
- 社会拒绝会降低我们的自尊,同时增强我们渴望被接受的意愿。当我们被貌视或抛弃时,我们感到自己缺乏魅力、能力不足。这种痛苦如同仪表盘上闪烁的指示灯一样,会驱使我们通过行动来发展自我,并在其他地方寻求衬会接纳和认同
- 低自尊的人在生活中经常遇到各种困难, 例如, 挣钱少、药物滥用,而且患抑郁的可能性也更大.低自尊的人可能在小时候经历了贫穷、性虐待, 或者有一对吸毒的父母。而事实上,年轻人遇到的问题并不是由低自尊引起的一童年期的遭遇可能才是罪魁祸首。
高自尊则确实有很多优势, 它有利于培养主动、乐观和愉快的感觉( B a um e i s ter& others, 2 003 )。而那些在“很小的年龄” 就有了性体验的男孩子倾向于有比平均水平更高的自尊。所以那些青少年团伙头目、极端种族主义者和恐怖主义者以及监狱中的暴力犯罪者也同样具有更高的自尊 - 大多数高自尊的人都重视个人的成功和与他人的关系3 自恋者虽然通常有高自尊,但缺失关心他人
- 高自恋低同理心能力的人反而更不成功,他们的大学学习成绩更差, 工作中也成就平平;高自尊且高自恋的学生最具有攻击性。尽管一般来讲高自尊优千低自尊,但是研究者发现,很多社会破坏者的自尊都高于平均水平。一个高自尊的人如果遭到社会的排斥而感到威胁或沮丧时, 他就具有潜在的攻击性。
- 当低自尊的人感觉很糟糕或受到威胁时,他们更倾向于透过有色眼镜来看待一切一注意并记住别人最坏的行为。低自尊的大学生不会选择以积极的限光评价自己的室友
- 安全型自尊的人不是因为外在(例如成绩、长相、金钱和具他的赞美) ,而是因为自己的内在特质而感觉良好的人——一直处于健康的状态。
- 那些试图通过变漂亮、富有或受人欢迎来寻求自尊的人,对真正有利于提高生活质挝的东西却视而不见。对自我形象少关注一些, 多注意开发自己的才能和发展人际关系,才会为你带来更大的幸福感。
- 自我效能( self-efficacy ) (我们感到有能力完成某项任务)理论对自己能力与效率的乐观信念可以获得很大的回报
- 如果你相信你有能力做一些事,这就是自我效能。如果你由衷地喜欢你自己,这就是自尊。自我效能感的反馈(“你真的已经很努力了” )会比自尊的反馈( “你真的很棒! ”)引起更好的表现。
- 促进个人控制的管理确实可以增强个体的健康和幸福
- 从30 种果酱或巧克力中做出选择的人们表示出的选择满意度` 比那些从6 种中做出选择的人们的反而低更多的选择可能会带来信息超载,也带来更多后悔的机会。和那些仅仅依循课程学习的人相比.自己选择下学期学习课程的学生. 更少为重要的考试而努力,且更容易被游戏和杂志所吸引。如果让员工们免费去巴黎或者去夏威夷旅行,他们会非常高兴;但是,如果让他们在两者之间进行选择.他们可能就不那么庇兴了。选择巴黎的人会后悔他们无法得到阳光的温暖和海水的滋润,选择夏威夷的人会后悔他们将欣赏不到那些壮观的博物馆。
- 人们对无法反悔的选择(比如“最后甩卖”中的选择决定)的满意度比对可以反悔的选择(当允许退款和更换时) 的满意度要高。可笑的是,人们似乎喜欢和愿意为推翻这种选择的自由而付出代价。尽管这种自由“可能会让你产生不满意”
- 自我效能感巾衬会说服(“你拥有通往成功的一切“)和自我说服(“我认为我能,我认为我能”)来支持。榜样看到其他类似的努力获得成功的例子也可以提高自我效能感。但自我效能的主要来源是对成功的体验。认可好的表现可以提高自我效能,而不是称赞人,这会使得表扬贬值。
- 自我服务归因(self-serving attributions ) : 把好的结果归因千自己,而把坏的结果归因千其他。讽刺的是,我们的偏见会让我们无视自己的偏见。人们常说自己避免了自我服务偏差,但却认为别人持有这一偏见
- 偏见盲点:我们总是认为自己站在客观的角度, 而所有其他人都带有偏见。
- 在多数主观的和社会赞许性方面,大部分人都觉得自己比平均水平要高。和总体水平相比,大多数人都认为自己道德水平更高,更胜任自己的丁作,更友善,更聪明, 更英俊, 更没有偏见,更健康,甚至更具洞察力,并且在自我评价时也更为客观
- 在普遍考虑的因素中,主观行为维度(如“自律的")将比客观行为维度(如“守时的")引发更强烈的自我服务偏差
- 大部分人对事物的看法偏向乐观,而非悲观。盲目的乐观让我们更加脆弱。由千相信自己总能幸免千难,我们往往不去采取明智的预防措施。
- 少量的现实主义,或者称为防御性悲观主义( defensive pessimism ) 可以把我们从盲目乐观的危险中拯救出来。那些高估自己学习能力的大学新生,经常会体验到自尊心和幸福感受挫的痛苦。防御性的悲观主义者会预见问题的发生并且促使自已进行有效的应对。
- 虚假普遍性效应:过分高估或低估他人会像我们一样思考和行事的程度。在观点方面、我们过高地估计别人对我们观点的赞成度以支持自己的立场
- 而在能力方面当我们干得不错或获得成功时, 虚假独特性效应(false niqueness effect ) 则更容易发生。我们把自己的才智和品德看成超平寻常的. 以完善自己的自我形象。对于诸如政治等观点,荷兰大学生更喜欢成为大群体的一员(虚假普遍性) ; 而对于诸如音乐偏好等品位方面奇他们却更喜欢成为小群体的一员(虚假独特性 ) 。
- 虚伪的谦逊其实是为了掩饰个体认为自己真的优于众人的想法。( 1996 年, James Friedrich 报告,大多数人在认为自己不比一般人更优秀的时候,反倒在心里庆幸自己更加优秀! )
- 自我妨碍(self-handicapping ):自我妨碍有利于我们把失败归于一些暂时的或外在因素(“我身体难受” ;“我昨天晚上熬得太晚了") ,而非自己的天赋或能力的匮乏,而可以保护我们的自尊和公众形象。
- 自我服务偏差、虚伪的谦逊和自我妨碍都揭示出个体十分在意自我形象。在不同程度上,我们始终在管理自己给他人留下的印象。无论我们是引人注意、胁迫他人还是表现出无助的样子, 作为一种社会性动物,我们总是在向周围的观众表演。我们渴望被社会接纳,这种渴望如此强烈,甚至可能让我们不惜伤害自己,例如吸烟、暴食、草率进行性行为、吸毒或酗酒等
- 自我表露(self-presentation, 也译作“自我表现“ )是指我们想要向外在的观众(别人)和内在的观众(自己)展现一种受赞许的形象。我们致力于管理自己营造的形象。我们通过推谈、辩解和道歉等方式来支撑我们的自尊并检验我们的自我形象
- 自我表露的优点在于它能够在始料未及的情况下改善人们的心情。脸谱网等社交网站提供了一个新的而且有时可以充分进行自我表露的场所。
- 那些在自我监控(self-monitoring ) 倾向量表上得分很高的人(这些人往往赞成“我倾向千成为人们希望的样子”)表现得像社会中的变色龙-他们不断根据周刚环境来调整自己的行为
- 谦逊可以营造良好的印象, 无故地夸耀则恰恰相反。这样就存在虚伪的谦逊现象. 我们表现出的自尊常常要弱于我们私下感到的自尊
社会信念和判断
- 我们并非如实地对现实进行反应,而是根据我们对现实的建构做出反应。
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